Action Research Literature Review Notes

These are the raw notes from the Literature Review I conducted. There are gaps because I've cut and pasted them into an outline.

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Concepts and strategies learned from girls' interactions with computers (Hanor, 1998)

Symbolic Representation Interview
- reflection through visualization of ideas (Hanor, 1998)
- allows students access to "creative inner processes and helps them communicate their own interactions with computers" (Hanor, 1998)
- in a symbolic representation interview, students "create a symbol to represent their concepts"; one used a lightbulb to "express the immediacy and the illumination of an idea" (Hanor, 1998)
- different from drawing because "less emphasis is placed on how things look or appear externally" (Hanor, 1998)
- "symbols reduce the variance and with simplification, the essential elements surface" (Hanor, 1998)

Girls' Stories

- what do girls deem important and meaningful with computers? (Hanor, 1998)

Self-Involvement and Validation

Individual Learning Styles

- some student need time away from the computer to further develop ideas (Hanor, 1998)
- must reject assumptions that all students use and relate to computers in the same way (Hanor, 1998)
- many students indicate they need more time with the computers (Hanor, 1998)

Naming or Framing the Action
- names impose order, control and frame the environment (Hanor, 1998)
- students likely to describe their work on computers "not in terms of the subject or content area but as a function or activity such as a game, writing a poem, or making a banner" (Hanor, 1998)
- important to look at the naming systems and educational technology environments: "What naming systems are in use? Whose naming systems are they? What contributes to them? How are they developed?" (Hanor, 1998)

Accessibility
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Ambiguity and Paradox
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- some paradoxes are revealed in girls work with computers and the way they describe the work: "drawing at the computer with the mouse as more difficult, but easier" (Hanor, 1998)
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- "[a]s different fonts, formats, and information are accessed, students choreograph their actions through their sense of meaning making" (Hanor, 1998)
- making sense of their experience with the computer allows room for ambiguity, like applying "oppositional or complementary forces to the conceptual design" of a HyperStudio multimedia presentation (Hanor, 1998)

Considerations for Teacher Education
- students experience computers under a teacher's influence (Hanor, 1998)
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- encourage a "critical stance toward computer applications" (Hanor, 1998)
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Shared Responsibility
- need to accept responsibility for "effect of choices offered to students" (Hanor, 1998)
- "limited choice of female characters from which she could select and identify" (Hanor, 1998)
- develop characters that allow users to interact on a personal level (Hanor, 1998)
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Conclusion
- consider how students make choices, make sense, and create meaning through their computer use (Hanor, 1998)
- computer "can also be referenced as a generator for the development of social systems that may or may not enhance the learning opportunities of girls and young women" (Hanor, 1998)

Work Cited

Hanor, J. H. (1998).Concepts and strategies learned form girls' interactions with computers. Theory into practice. 37, 64-71.

Girls take charge of technology (Hartshorn, 2000)

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- four units in a semester-long course (Hartshorn, 2000)
- topics chosen by girls: eating disorders, careers, grief and loss (Hartshorn, 2000)
- for first project the girls brainstormed possible topics, with each girl choosing a separate topic (Hartshorn, 2000)
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- information then presented in HyperStudio stacks and presented to class (Hartshorn, 2000)
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- second unit was on eating disorders and media's influence on girls (Hartshorn, 2000)
- psychologist spoke about body image, how to spot an eating disorder, how to get help for someone (Hartshorn, 2000)
- searched online for companies promoting unhealthy body images and emailed them about their advertisements (Hartshorn, 2000)
- girls received responses from some companies (Hartshorn, 2000)
- third unit on women's self-defense (Hartshorn, 2000)
- taught "confident body posture," how to stay away from potentially dangerous situations, five vulnerable areas on the body, weapons of opportunity, and developed a safety plan (Hartshorn, 2000)
- created a web page on a section from their self-defense book (Hartshorn, 2000)
- final unit on grief and loss (Hartshorn, 2000)
- discussed concept of loss and difference between big and small losses, losses in their lives and the "spin-off losses" that come with them (Hartshorn, 2000)
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- career unit got shunted aside for grief and loss unit, but girls still selected a job interest, researched average beginning salary, created a personal budget, and created and presented a PowerPoint presentation about the career (Hartshorn, 2000)
- the author felt she benefitted most from eating disorders unit (Hartshorn, 2000)
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Work Cited

Hartshorn, K. (2000). Girls take charge of technology. Learning and Leading with Technology. 28, 18-20.

The Brownie brigade (Thomas & Keller, 2002)

- teach computer skills to Girls Scouts through Louisville Free Public Library's Computer Learning Centers (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- fifteen computers arranged in a classroom-like setting with a projector at the front (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- many adults using the center, few children (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
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- program designed to meet badge requirements of three different Girl Scout levels (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- because of sheer number of possible students, it was determined to target the first two levels initially and to choose badge requirements possible to meet in a two-hour period (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- additional librarians trained for the program (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- response very favorable (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- first class included thirty girls and two troop leaders, characterized as "chaotic" (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
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- computer glitches (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- girls were able to complete badge requirements (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- decided to limit subsequent classes to fifteen girls (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- "Point, Click, and Go" badge requirements: Brownies: turn on computer, save a Word document to disk; Juniors: wrote biographical paragraph, designed a certificate in Word, learned Internet basics, how to use email, signed Girl Scout's Online Safety Pledge (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
- class sizes ranged from three to more than twenty (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
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- over two years taught more than thirty classes to more than two hundred girls (Thomas & Keller, 2002)
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- also a great way to introduce the library to students (Thomas & Keller, 2002)

Work Cited

Thomas, T., & Keller, J. (2002). The Brownie brigade. School Library Journal. 48, 43.

Computers, gender bias, and young children (Bhargava et al, 1999)

Abstract
- discrepancy exists in classroom access and use of computers between girls and boys (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- strategies to minimize "gender biases before sterotypic behaviors are established" are suggested (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- difference between genders in computer use can be traced to:

* "gender biased classroom practices" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* "lack of female role models" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* "computer gender gap in homes" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* "the scarcity of bias-free software programs" (Bhargava et al, 1999)

- teacher and parent awareness of sex role stereotyping, use of unbiased software, and promotion of equitable computer use by girls and boys can minimize biased attitudes (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- should focus on a proactive rather than retroactive approach to combating bias (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- males are still predominant users of technology (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- number of women in computer science is declining (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- "socioeconomic status, ethnicity and gender still determine who uses computers and how they are used" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- "[s]ocietal norms of gender behavior still strongly influence young children's behavior (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- adults need to "enhance the self-concept of girls in relation to computers and introduce computer literacy early before gender stereotypes emerge" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- "if children were exposed to computers early enough, and if schools maintained equal access through computing, girls would become competent computer users" (Bhargava et al, 1999)

Biases Regarding Attitudes Towards Girls' Computer Use
- boys use computers more than girls from an early age (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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- perceptions cause girls to resist technology education (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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- limited role models for girls (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- computer use limited in "art, language classes etc." (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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Biases Regarding Computer Software
- inequity in computer use (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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- should see computer as a tool "as opposed to an object of study" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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- software generally has male characters (Bhargava et al, 1999)
- females in software represented in traditional roles (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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Biases Regarding Teachers and Parents' Perceptions and Expectations of Boys and Girls

Strategies for Changing Biased Attitudes Toward Computers
- "[p]rovide female role models of competent computer use by:"

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* not associating computers with hard math (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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* use verbal and non-verbal assistance in organizing the environment and materials, demonstrating as necessary, and providing assistance (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* share the students' interests and excitement (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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* "regulate" and "guide" the use of the computer and software so students are aware of "the demands of the computer programs" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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* use antibiased software and classroom materials (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Software
- use the following criteria when selecting software:

* equal representation of female and male characters (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* intensity of physical actions equal for male and female characters (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* limited or non-existant aggressive or destructive behaviors (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* female characters portrayed as problem solvers and leaders (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* the characters are "not stereotyped by occupational roles" and do not use sexist language (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* characters do not use stereotypical emotional statements (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* competition and cooperation is balanced (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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* "female and male oriented awards for correct answers are used" (football clearing goalpost) (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* rewards use words and graphics or a chance to choose a "token reward system" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* "nonhuman objects are not assumed to be male" (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* the program's content and style are appealing to girls and boys (Bhargava et al, 1999)

Strategies for Changing Attitudes of Teachers and Parents
- the following strategies for enhancing the way teachers influence girls and their parents' attitudes towards computers are suggested;

* advocate that girls and boys are both capable of using computers (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* show interest and share ideas to communicate feelings of competence (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* use positive nonverbal communication regarding student computer use (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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*
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* use appropriate software (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* integrate computers into an essential part of the curriculum (Bhargava et al, 1999)
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* encourage the completion of home assignments on a computer (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* do not use linguistic bias (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* select boys and girls for computer tasks rather than using volunteers (Bhargava et al, 1999)
* use all opportunities to encourage parents to promote equitable use between genders of computers and to use appropriate software (Bhargava et al, 1999)

- important to provide young children with positive experiences before biases have set in (Bhargava et al, 1999)

Work Cited

Bhargava, A., Kirova-Petrova, A., & McNair, S. (1999). Computers, gender bias, and young children. Information Technology in Childhood Education. 1999, 263-74.

Effects of ICT group work on interactions and social accemptance of a primary pupil with Asperger's Syndrome (Lewis et al, 2005)

Abstract
- collaborative work on a computer, facilitated by an adult, was used to help a schoolboy with asperger's Synrome "develop appopriate task-related interactions with his peers" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- results "indicate moderate improvements in the child's ability to interact with his peers, both in social and task-related contexts, as well as a raised social profile among his classmates in general" (Lewis et al, 2005)

Introduction
- children with mild disabilities have a difficult time being accepted in general education classrooms (Lewis et al, 2005)
- children with Asperger's Syndrome report bullying and teasing as being factors that make them "unhappy" at school (Lewis et al, 2005)
- diagnoses of Asperger's "based on the autism spectrum triad of impairments: impairment of social interaction; impairment of social communication; the impairment of social imagination, imaginative play and flexible thinking" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- "difficulty in developing interpersonal skills is probably the most noticeable feature of children with ASD" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- children with ASD are asocial: "at times wanting to be part of the social world, but not knowing how to enter it" (Lewis et al, 2005)
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- "[t]he activity needs to be structured, to be consistent with clear expectations and to have a balance between verbal and non-verbal tasks" (Lewis et al, 2005)
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Method
- 7.5 year old boy in third year of mainstream primary school (Lewis et al, 2005)
- greatest difficulties "were recognised (sic) as being able to 'pick up' on social cues, form appropriate friendships and to react and participate appropriately in group situations (Lewis et al, 2005)

Interview, questionnaire and sociometric data
- parents interviewed about child's social skills, inclusion by peers, particular difficulties with children in his class (Lewis et al, 2005)
- questionnaire given to teacher and Learning Support Assistant before computer sessions: social interaction and social communication scaling (Lewis et al, 2005)
- interview with teacher and LSA concerning child's social skills and inclusion by classmates but also "to ascertain appropriate group dynamics for computer work" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- sociometric testing conducted on two fellow students, intended to gather information "about the popularity of the children involved in the study" (Lewis et al, 2005)

Adult-facilitate computer group work
- two boys chosen to work with child with ASD (Lewis et al, 2005)
- used "'The Clue Finder-- years 4 & 5 Adventures' (The Learning Company, 2000), an adventure game requiring users to solve a mystery by collecting clues which are given following problem solving activities" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- program chosen because the Ancient Egypt setting aligned with curriculum (Lewis et al, 2005)
- students took five minute turns controlling the mouse (Lewis et al, 2005)
- observer supervised turn-taking, intervened to reinforce positive behavior and communication and provided praise to the group at the conclusion (Lewis et al, 2005)
- no guidance from the observer (Lewis et al, 2005)
- research informed by studies on the "quality of talk" and "increases in social talk" (Lewis et al, 2005)

Ben's classroom profile
- determined that it was appropriate to intervene "in a non-confrontational manner" to assist Ben with social skills development (Lewis et al, 2005)
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The social situation: sociometric testing
- classmates polled as to whom they liked to play with at lunchtime, who they would like to sit with on a field trip, who they would like to do schoolwork with (Lewis et al, 2005)
- Ben's responses corroborated earlier evidence that he was fixated on a particular classmate (Lewis et al, 2005)
- over the course of computer work, through adult praise, Ben was able to "interact with his peers in a manner more appropriate to the task" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- Ben initially had difficulty engaging in group work: "when taking his turn controlling the mouse he would largely ignore the other boys" (Lewis et al, 2005)
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The social situation reconsidered
- post-test, Ben chose different children in the same polls conducted pre-test (Lewis et al, 2005)
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- social skills still need development and refinement (Lewis et al, 2005)
- "unstructured play remained problematic for Ben" (Lewis et al, 2005)
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- now able to "give a simple sequence of instructions" (Lewis et al, 2005)
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Interpretation
- "modest beneficial results in a discrete setting" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- "the role of the facilitator and appropriate context is crucial in ensuring productive educational interactions among children participating in computer-based group work" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- "[i]nappropriate non-task-related social interaction decreased while task-related idea generation and instruction increased from week 5 to week 10" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- social status of Ben changed as well (Lewis et al, 2005)
- computer-focused collaborative group work is not a "remedy" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- may have benefitted the student because the process encouraged "appropriate social and academic skills" (Lewis et al, 2005)
- need to have a carefully-selected peer group (Lewis et al, 2005)
- adult facilitator needs to be able to adjust level of support according to the communication abilities of the student and the "specific social difficulties" the student might have (Lewis et al, 2005)

Work Cited

Lewis, L., Trushell, J., & Woods, P. (2005). Effect of ICT group work on interactions and social acceptance of a primary pupil with Asperger's Syndrome. British Journal of Educational Technology. 26, 739-55.